This paper presents an overview of the field of bioheat transfer. Topics covered include factors that distinguish heat transfer in living systems from inanimate systems, application areas in basic research and in clinical diagnosis and therapy, and our projection of where the field is headed and what are likely to be the most fertile opportunities for contributions by members of the heat transfer community.
1.
Apfelberg
D. B.
1996
, “The Ultrapulse Carbon Dioxide laser with Computer Pattern Generator Automatic Scanner for Facial Cosmetic Surgery and Resurfacing
,” Annals of Plastic Surgery
, Vol. 36
, pp. 522
–529
.2.
Arai
T.
Sakurada
M.
Miyamoto
A.
Mizuno
K.
Arakawa
K.
Shibuya
T.
Kurita
A.
Nakamura
K.
Kikuchi
K.
Utsumi
A.
Akai
Y.
Takeuchi
K.
1991
, “Laser Hot Balloon Catheter for Stenotic Coronary Diseases
,” Lasers and Electrooptics
, Vol. 19
, pp. 1770
–1771
.3.
Astrahan
M.
Imanaka
K.
Jozsef
G.
Ameye
F.
Baert
L.
Sapozink
M. D.
Boyd
S.
Pertivich
Z.
1991
, “Heating Characteristics of a Helical Microwave Applicator for Transurethral Hyperthermia of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
,” International Journal of Hyperthermia
, Vol. 7
, pp. 141
–155
.4.
Bai
X.
Pegg
D. E.
1991
, “Thermal Property Measurement on Biological Materials at Subzero Temperatures
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 113
, pp. 423
–429
.5.
Baish
J. W.
1990
, “Heat Transport by Countercurrent Blood Vessels in the Presence of an Arbitrary Temperature Gradient
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 112
, pp. 207
–211
.6.
Baish
J. W.
Ayyaswamy
P. S.
Foster
K. R.
1986
, “Heat Transport Mechanisms in Vascular Tissues: A Model Comparison
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 108
, pp. 324
–331
.7.
Balasubramaniam
T. A.
Bowman
H. F.
1977
, “Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Diffusivity of Biomaterials: A Simultaneous Measurement Technique
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 99
, pp. 148
–154
.8.
Baust, J. G., and Chang, Z., 1995, “Underlying Mechanisms of Damage and New Concept in Cryosurgical Instrumentation,” Cryosurgery: Mechanism and Applications, IIR Press, Paris, pp. 21–36.
9.
Berube, D., and Liem, L. B., 1998, “Microwave Catheter Ablation for the Treatment of Atrial Flutter,” Proceedings of Surgical Applications of Energy, T. P. Ryan, ed., Vol. 3249, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA.
10.
Bischof
J. C.
Rubinsky
B.
1993
, “Microscale Heat and Mass Transfer of Vascular and Intracellular Freezing in the Liver
,” ASME JOURNAL OF HEAT TRANSFER
, Vol. 115
, pp. 1029
–1035
.11.
Bowman, H. F., 1985, “Estimation of Tissue Blood Flow,” Heat Transfer in Medicine and Biology: Analysis and Application, Vol. I, A. Shitzer and R. Eberhart, eds. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 193–230.
12.
Bowman
H. F.
Cravalho
E. G.
Woods
M.
1975
, “Theory, Measurement, and Applications of Thermal Properties of Biomaterials
,” Annual Review of Biophysics and Bioengineering
, Vol. 4
, pp. 43
–80
.13.
Buchanan
M. T.
Hynynen
K.
1994
, “Design and Experimental Evaluation of an Intracavitary Ultrasound Phased Array System for Hyperthermia
,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
, Vol. 41
, pp. 1178
–1187
.14.
Bu¨ttner
K.
1951
a, “Effects of Extreme Heat and Cold on Human Skin. I. Analysis of Temperature Changes Caused by Different Kinds of Heat Application
,” Journal of Applied Physiology
, Vol. 3
, pp. 691
–702
.15.
Bu¨ttner
K.
1951
b, “Effects of Extreme Heat and Cold on Human Skin. II. Surface Temperature, Pain and Heat Conductivity in Experiments with Radiant Heat
,” Journal of Applied Physiology
, Vol. 47
, pp. 691
–702
.16.
Carper
S. W.
Duffy
J. J.
Gerner
E. W.
1987
, “Heat Shock Proteins in Thermotolerance and Other Cellular Processes
,” Cancer Research
, Vol. 47
, pp. 5249
–5256
.17.
Castellana
F. S.
Skalak
R.
Cho
J. M.
Case
R. B.
1983
, “Steady-State Analysis and Evaluation of a New Thermal Sensor for Surface Measurements of Tissue Perfusion
,” Annals of Biomedical Engineering
, Vol. 11
, pp. 101
–115
.18.
Carter
D. L.
MacFall
J. R.
Clegg
S. T.
Wan
X.
Prescott
D. M.
Charles
H. C.
Samulski
T. V.
1998
, “Magnetic Resonance Thermometry During Hyperthermia for High-Grade Glioma
,” International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology and Physics
, Vol. 40
, pp. 815
–822
.19.
Charney
C. K.
Weinbaum
S.
Levin
R. L.
1990
, “An Evaluation of the Weinbaum-Jiji Bioheat Equation for Normal and Hyperthermic Conditions
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 112
, pp. 80
–87
.20.
Charney
C. K.
1992
, “Mathematical Models of Bioheat Transfer
,” Advances in Heat Transfer
, Vol. 22
, pp. 19
–155
.21.
Chato, J. C., 1968, “A Method for the Measurement of the Thermal Properties of Biological Materials,” Thermal Problems in Biotechnology, J. C. Chato, ed., ASME, New York, pp. 16–25.
22.
Chato
J. C.
1980
, “Heat Transfer to Blood Vessels
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 102
, pp. 110
–118
.23.
Chato
J. C.
Lee
R.
1998
, “The Future of Biothermal Engineering
,” Annals New York Academy of Sciences
, Vol. 858
, pp. 1
–20
.24.
Chen
M. M.
Holmes
K. R.
1980
, “Microvascular Contributions in Tissue Heat Transfer
,” Annals New York Academy of Sciences
, Vol. 335
, pp. 137
–150
.25.
Coleman
D. J.
Lizzi
F. L.
Burgess
S. E. P.
Silverman
R. H.
Smith
M. E.
Driller
J.
Rosado
A.
Ellsworth
R. M.
Haik
B. G.
Abramson
D. R.
McCormick
B.
1986
, “Ultrasonic Hyperthermia and Radiation in the Management of Intraocular Malignant Melanoma
,” American Journal of Ophthalmology
, Vol. 101
, pp. 635
–642
.26.
Cooley
D. A.
Frazier
O. H.
Kadipasaoglu
K. A.
Pehlivanoglu
S.
Shannon
R. L.
Angelini
P.
1994
, “Transmyocardial Laser Revascularization: Anatomic Evidence of Long-Term Channel Patency
,” Texas Heart Institute Journal
, Vol. 21
, pp. 220
–224
.27.
Dadd
J. S.
Ryan
T. P.
Platt
R. C.
1996
, “Tissue Impedance As a Function of Temperature and Time
,” Biomedical and Scientific Instrumentation
, Vol. 32
, pp. 205
–214
.28.
Delhomme
G.
Dittmar
A.
Newman
W. H.
Bowman
H. F.
Jouvet
M.
1992
, “Thermal Diffusion Probes for Tissue Blood Flow Measurements
,” Sensors and Actuators
, Vol. 6
, pp. 87
–90
.29.
Devonec
M.
Berger
N.
Perrin
P.
1991
, “Transurethral Microwave Heating of the Prostate-or from Hyperthermia to Thermotherapy
,” Journal of Endourology
, Vol. 5
, pp. 129
–135
.30.
Diederich
C. J.
1996
, “Ultrasound Applicators with Integrated Catheter-Cooling for Interstitial Hyperthermia: Theory and Preliminary Experiments
,” International Journal of Hyperthermia
, Vol. 12
, pp. 279
–297
.31.
Diller
K. R.
1982
, “Quantitative Low Temperature Optical Microscopy of Biological Systems
,” Journal of Microscopy
, Vol. 126
, pp. 9
–28
.32.
Diller, K. R., 1988a, “Energy Based Network Modeling for Cryobiology,” Low Temperature Biotechnology: Emerging Applications and Engineering Contributions, J. J. McGrath and K. R. Diller, eds., ASME, New York, pp. 189–202.
33.
Diller, K. R., 1988b, “Cryomicroscopy,” Low Temperature Biotechnology: Emerging Applications and Engineering Contributions, J. J. McGrath and K. R., Diller, eds., ASME, New York, pp. 347–362.
34.
Diller
K. R.
1992
, “Modeling of Bioheat Transfer Processes at High and Low Temperatures
,” Advances in Heat Transfer
, Vol. 22
, pp. 157
–357
.35.
Diller
K. R.
1998
, “Biotransport: Heat and Mass transfer in Living Systems
,” Annals New York Academy of Sciences
, Vol. 858
, pp. 1
–319
.36.
Diller
K. R.
Beaman
J. J.
Montoya
J. P.
Breedfeld
P. C.
1988
, “Network Thermodynamic Modeling with Bond Graphs for Membrane Transport During Cell Freezing
,” ASME JOURNAL OF HEAT TRANSFER
, Vol. 110
, pp. 938
–945
.37.
Diller
K. R.
Cravalho
E. G.
1970
, “A Cryomicroscope for the Study of Freezing and Thawing Processes in Biological Cells
,” Cryobiology
, Vol. 7
, pp. 191
–199
.38.
Dilley
A. V.
Dy
D. Y.
Walters
A.
Copeland
S.
Gillies
A. E.
Morris
R. W.
Gibb
D. B.
Cook
T. A.
Morris
D. L.
1993
, “Laboratory and Animal Model Evaluation of the Cryotech LCS 2000 in Hepatic Cryotherapy
,” Cryobiology
, Vol. 30
, pp. 74
–85
.39.
Dover
J. S.
Hruza
G. J.
1996
, “Laser Skin Resurfacing
,” Seminars in Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery
, Vol. 15
, pp. 177
–188
.40.
Dubuisson
J. B.
Chapron
C.
Fauconnier
A.
Kreiker
G.
1997
, “Laparoscopic Myomectomy and Myolysis
,” Current Opinions in Obstetrics and Gynecology
, Vol. 9
, pp. 233
–238
.41.
Eberhart
R. C.
Shitzer
A.
Hernandez
E. J.
1980
, “Thermal Dilution Methods: Estimation of Tissue Blood Flow and Metabolism
,” Annals New York Academy of Sciences
, Vol. 335
, pp. 107
–132
.42.
Fahy, G. M., 1988, “Vitrification,” Low Temperature Biotechnology: Emerging Applications and Engineering Contributions, J. J. McGrath and K. R. Diller, eds., ASME, New York, pp. 113–146.
43.
Fahy
G. M.
1990
, “Physical Problems with the Vitrification of Large Biological Systems
,” Cryobiology
, Vol. 27
, pp. 492
–510
.44.
Finger
P. T.
Smith
P. D.
Paglione
R. W.
Perry
H. D.
1990
, “Transscleral Microwave Cyclodestruction
,” Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science
, Vol. 31
, pp. 2151
–2155
.45.
Fowler
A. J.
Toner
M.
1998
, “Prevention of Hemolysis in Rapidly Frozen Erythrocytes by Using a Laser Pulse
,” Annals New York Academy of Sciences
, Vol. 858
, pp. 245
–252
.46.
deFreitas
R. C.
Diller
K. R.
Lakey
J. R. T.
Rajotte
R. V.
1997
, “Osmotic Behavior and Transport Properties of Human Islets in a Dimethyl Sulfoxide Solution
,” Cryobiology
, Vol. 35
, pp. 230
–239
.47.
de Freitas
R. C.
Diller
K. R.
Lachenbruch
C. A.
Merchant
F. A.
1998
, “Network Thermodynamic Model of Coupled Transport in a Multicellular Tissue—The Islet of Langerhans
,” Annals New York Academy of Sciences
, Vol. 858
, pp. 191
–204
.48.
Fulton
J. E.
1996
, “Dermabrasion, Chemabrasion, and Laserabrasion
,” Dermatologlcal Surgery
, Vol. 22
, pp. 619
–628
.49.
Gentile
D. B.
Gori
F.
Leoncini
M.
1991
, “Electromagnetic and Thermal Models of a Water-Cooled Dipole Radiating in a Biological Tissue
,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
, Vol. 38
, pp. 98
–103
.50.
Goldberg, S. N., and Gazelle, G. S., 1998, “Advances in Radiofrequency Tumor Ablation Therapy: Technical Considerations, Strategies for Increasing Coagulation Necrosis Volume, and Preliminary Results,” Proceedings of Surgical Applications of Energy, T. P. Ryan, ed., Vol. 3249, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA.
51.
Goldfarb
H. A.
1992
, “Nd:YAG Laser Laparoscopic Coagulation of Symptomatic Myomas
,” Journal of Reproductive Medicine
, Vol. 37
, pp. 636
–638
.52.
Goldfarb
H. A.
1993
, “Bipolar Laparoscopic Needles for Myoma Coagulation
,” Journal of American Association of Gynecologic Laparoscopists
, Vol. 4
, pp. 425
–433
.53.
Hayes
L. J.
Diller
K. R.
Chang
H. J.
Lee
H. S.
1988
, “Prediction of Local Cooling Rates and Cell Survival During the Freezing of Cylindrical Specimens
,” Cryobiology
, Vol. 25
, pp. 67
–82
.54.
Henriques
F. C.
1947
, “Studies of Thermal Injury, V. The Predictability and the Significance of Thermally Induced Rate Processes Leading to Irreversible Epidermal Injury
,” Archives of Pathology
, Vol. 5
, pp. 489
–502
.55.
Henriques
F. C.
Moritz
A. R.
1947
, “Studies of Thermal Injury. I. The Conduction of Heat to and Through Skin and the Temperatures Attained Therein. A Theoretical and Experimental Investigation
,” American Journal of Pathology
, Vol. 23
, pp. 531
–549
.56.
Hoey
M. F.
Mulier
P. M.
Leveillee
R. J.
Hulbert
J. C.
1997
, “Transurethral Prostate Ablation with Saline Electrode Allows Controlled Production of Larger Lesions than Conventional Lesions
,” Journal of Endourology
, Vol. 4
, pp. 279
–284
.57.
Holti, G., and Mitchell, K. W., 1979, “Estimation of the Nutrient Skin Blood Flow Using a Non-Invasive Segmented Thermal Clearance Probe,” Non-Invasive Physiological Measurements, Vol. 1, E. P. Rolfe, ed., Academic Press, London, pp. 113–123.
58.
Horvath
K. A.
Smith
W. J.
Laurence
R. G.
Schoen
F. J.
Appleyard
R. F.
Cohn
L. H.
1995
, “Recovery and Viability of an Acute Myocardial Infarct after Transmyocardial Laser Revascularization
,” Journal of American College of Cardiology
, Vol. 25
, pp. 258
–263
.59.
Huang
H. W.
Chen
Z. P.
Rocmer
R. B.
1996
, “A Counter Current Vascular Network Model of Heat Transfer in Tissues
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 118
, pp. 120
–129
.60.
Huang
S. K. S.
Graham
A. R.
Lee
M. A.
Ring
M. E.
Gorman
G. D.
Schiffman
R.
1991
, “Comparison of Catheter Ablation using Radiofrequency Versus Direct Current Energy: Biophysical, Electrophysiologic and Pathologic Observations
,” Journal American College Cardiology
, Vol. 18
, pp. 1091
–1097
.61.
Humphries, S., Platt, R. C., and Ryan, T. P., 1997, “Finite-Element Codes To Model Electrical Heating and Non-Linear Transport In Biological Media,” Advances In Heat And Mass Transfer In Biotechnology, HTD-Vol. 355/BED-Vol. 37, ASME, New York, pp. 131–134.
62.
Hurst, B. S., Ryan, T. P., Thomsen, S., and Lawes, K., 1998, “Computer-Controlled Bipolar Endotubal Sterilization is Successful in a Rabbit Model,” in press.
63.
Jiji
L. M.
Weinbaum
S.
Lemons
D. E.
1984
, “Theory and Experiment for the Effect of Vascular Microstructure on Surface Tissue Heat Transfer. Part II. Model Formulation and Solution
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 106
, pp. 331
–341
.64.
Johnson
C. S.
Guy
A. W.
1972
, “Non-ionizing Wave Effects in Biological Materials and Systems
,” Proceedings of the IEEE
, Vol. 60
, pp. 692
–718
.65.
Kapp, D. S., and Prionas, S. D., 1992, “Experience with Radiofrequency-Local Current Field Interstitial Hyperthermia: Biological Rationale, Equipment Development, and Clinical Results,” Interstitial Hyperthermia, Handl-Zeller ed., Springer-Verlag, Austria, pp. 95–119.
66.
Kasharin
A. V.
Karlsson
J. O. M.
1998
, “Analysis of Mass Transport during Warming of Cryopreserved Cells
,” Annals New York Academy of Sciences
, Vol. 858
, pp. 163
–174
.67.
Kedem
O.
Katchalsky
A.
1958
, “Thermodynamic Analysis of Permeability of Biological Membranes to Nonelectrolytes
,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta
, Vol. 27
, pp. 229
–246
.68.
Klar
T.
Kraus
M.
Bleyl
J.
Newman
W. H.
Bowman
H. F.
von Kummer
R.
Otto
G.
Herfarth
C.
1995
, “Thermodiffusion as a Novel Method for Continuous Monitoring of the Hepatic Microcirculation after Liver Transplantation
,” Transplantation Proceedings
, Vol. 27
, pp. 2610
–2612
.69.
Klar
T.
Kraus
M.
Bredt
B.
Osswald
N.
Senninger
C.
Herfarth
C.
Otto
G.
1996
, “First Clinical Realization of Continuous Monitoring of Liver Microcirculation after Transplantation by Thermodiffusion
,” Transplantation International
, Vol. 9
, pp. S140–S143
S140–S143
.70.
Klar, T., Kraus, J., Bleyl, B., Newman, W. H., Bowman, H. F., Hofmann, W., von Kummer, R., Otto, G., and Herfarth, C., 1997, “Thermodiffusion for Continuous Quantification of Hepatic Microcirculation—Validation and Potentials in Liver Transplantation,” Transplantation, submitted for publication.
71.
Kolios
M. K.
Sherar
M. D.
Hunt
J. W.
1996
, “Blood Flow Cooling and Ultrasonic Lesion Formation
,” Medical Physics
, Vol. 23
, pp. 1287
–1298
.72.
Kress
R.
Roemer
R. B.
1987
, “A Comparative Analysis of Thermal Blood Perfusion Measurement Techniques
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 109
, pp. 218
–225
.73.
Kurz, W., and Fisher, D. J., 1992, Fundamentals of Solidification, 3rd Ed., Trans Tech Publications, Aedermannsdorf, Switzerland.
74.
Labonte
S.
1994
, “Numerical Model for Radio-Frequency Ablation of the Endocardium and Its Experimental Validation
,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
, Vol. 41
, pp. 108
–115
.75.
Lachenbruch
C. A.
Pegg
D. E.
Diller
K. R.
1998
, “Sensitivity of Kidney Perfusion Protocol Design to Physical and Physiological Parameters
,” Annals New York Academy of Sciences
, Vol. 858
, pp. 298
–309
.76.
Langberg
J. L.
Wonnell
T.
Chin
M. C.
Finkbeiner
W.
Scheinman
M.
Stauffer
P.
1991
, “Catheter Ablation of the Atrioventricular Junction using a Helical Microwave Antenna: A Novel Means of Coupling Energy to the Endocardium
,” PACE
, Vol. 14
, pp. 2105
–2113
.77.
Lawrence
J. C.
Bull
J. P.
1976
, “Thermal Conditions Which Cause Skin Burns
,” Journal of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Engineering in Medicine
, Vol. 5
, pp. 61
–63
.78.
Lee
F.
Bahn
D. K.
McHugh
T. A.
Onik
G. M.
Lee
F. T.
1994
, “US Guided Percutaneous Cryoablation of Prostate Cancer
,” Radiology
, Vol. 192
, pp. 769
–776
.79.
Levin, R. L., 1988, “Osmotic Behavior of Cells During Freezing and Thawing,” Low Temperature Biotechnology: Emerging Applications and Engineering Contributions, J. J. McGrath and K. R. Diller, eds., ASME, New York, pp. 177–188.
80.
Lewis, J. W., and Dubuc, M., 1998, “Catheter Application of Cryogenic Temperatures Inside the Heart,” Proceedings of Surgical Applications of Energy, T. P. Ryan, ed., Vol. 3249, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA.
81.
Liggett
P. E.
Pince
K. J.
Astrahan
M.
Rao
N.
Perrovich
Z.
1990
, “Localized Current Field Hyperthermia: Effect on Ocular Tissue
,” International Journal of Hyperthermia
, Vol. 6
, pp. 517
–527
.82.
Livraghi
T.
Goldberg
S. N.
Monti
F.
Bizzini
A.
Lazzaroni
S.
Meloni
F.
Pellicano
S.
Solbiati
L.
Gazelle
G. S.
1997
, “Saline Enhances Radio-Frequency Tissue Ablation in the Treatment of Liver Metastases
,” Radiology
, Vol. 202
, pp. 205
–210
.83.
Lovelock
J. E.
1953
, “The Mechanism of the Protective Action of Glycerol Against Haemolysis by Freezing and Thawing
,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta
, Vol. 11
, pp. 28
–36
.84.
Martin
G. T.
Haddad
M. G.
Cravalho
E. G.
Bowman
H. F.
1992
, “Thermal Model for the Local Microwave Hyperthermia Treatment of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
, Vol. 39
, pp. 836
–844
.85.
Matsumoto
R.
Selig
A. M.
Colucci
V. M.
Jolesz
F. A.
1992
, “Interstitial Nd:YAG Laser Ablation in Normal Rabbit Liver
,” Lasers in Surgery and Medicine
, Vol. 12
, pp. 650
–658
.86.
Mazur
P.
1963
, “Kinetics of Water Loss from Cells at Subzero Temperatures and the Likelihood of Intracellular Freezing
,” Journal of General Physiology
, Vol. 47
, pp. 347
–369
.87.
Mazur
P.
1990
, “Equilibrium, Quasi-Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Freezing of Mammalian Embryos
,” Cell Biophysics
, Vol. 17
, pp. 53
–92
.88.
McGahan
J. P.
Schneider
P.
Brock
J. M.
Tesluk
H.
1993
, “Treatment of Liver Tumors by Percutaneous Radiofrequency Electrocautery
,” Seminars in Interventional Radiology
, Vol. 10
, pp. 143
–149
.89.
McGrath
J. J.
1985
, “A Microscope Diffusion Chamber for the Determination of the Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium Response of Individual Cells
,” Journal of Microscopy
, Vol. 139
, pp. 249
–263
.90.
McGrath, J. J., 1988, “Membrane Transport Properties,” Low Temperature Biotechnology: Emerging Applications and Engineering Contributions, J. J. McGrath and K. R. Diller, eds., ASME, New York, pp. 273–330.
91.
McGrath, J. J., and Diller, K. R., eds., 1988, “Low Temperature Biotechnology: Emerging Applications and Engineering Contributions,” ASME, New York, pp. 1–380.
92.
Michner, M., Hager, J. M., Terrell, J. P., Veit, H., and Diller, T. E., 1991, “Noninvasive Blood Perfusion Measurement with a Heat Flux Microsensor,” Advances in Biological Heat and Mass Transfer, HTD-Vol. 189/BED-Vol. 18, ASME, New York, pp. 9–14.
93.
Mitchell
J. W.
Myers
G. E.
1968
, “An Analytical Model of the Countercurrent Heat Exchange Phenomena
,” Biophysical Journal
, Vol. 8
, pp. 897
–911
.94.
Montorsi
F.
Guazzoni
G.
Colombo
R.
Galli
L.
Bergamaschi
F.
Rigatti
P.
1992
, “Transurethral Microwave Hyperthermia for Advanced Prostate Cancer: Long Term Clinical Results
,” Journal of Urology
, Vol. 148
, pp. 342
–345
.95.
Mooibroek
J.
Lagendijk
J. J. W.
1991
, “A Fast and Simple Algorithm for the Calculation of Convective Heat Transfer by Large Vessels in 3-Dimensional Inhomogeneous Tissue
,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
, Vol. 38
, pp. 490
–501
.96.
Moritz
A. R.
Henriques
F. C.
1947
, “Studies of Thermal Injury. II. The Relative Importance of Time and Surface Temperature in the Causation of Cutaneous Burns
,” American Journal of Pathology
, Vol. 23
, pp. 695
–720
.97.
Moskowitz
M. J.
Ryan
T. P.
Paulsen
K. D.
Mitchell
S. E.
1995
, “Clinical Implementation of Electrical Impedance Tomography with Hyperthermia
,” International Journal of Hyperthermia
, Vol. 11
, pp. 141
–149
.98.
Moussa
N. A.
McGrath
J. J.
Cravalho
E. G.
Asimacopoulos
P. J.
1977
, “Kinetics of Thermal Injury in Cells
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 99
, pp. 155
–159
.99.
Moussa
N. A.
Tell
E. N.
Cravalho
E. G.
1979
, “Time Progression of Hemolysis of Erythrocyte Populations Exposed to Supraphysiological Temperatures
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 101
, pp. 213
–217
.100.
Naseek
G. S.
Fostre
T. E.
Trauner
K.
Solhpour
S.
Anderson
R. R.
Zarins
B.
1997
, “The Thermal Properties of Bovine Joint Capsule, The Basic Science of Laser and Radiofrequency-Induced Capsular Shrinkage
,” American Journal of Sports Medicine
, Vol. 25
, pp. 670
–674
.101.
Nelson
D. A.
1998
, “Invited Editorial on ‘Pennes’ 1948 Paper Revisited
,’” Journal of Applied Physiology
, Vol. 85
, pp. 2
–3
.102.
Nerem
R. M.
Sambanis
A.
1995
, “Tissue Engineering: From Biology to Biological Substitutes
,” Tissue Engineering
, Vol. 1
, pp. 3
–13
.103.
Onik
G.
Gilbert
J.
Hoddick
W.
Filly
R.
Callen
P.
Rubinsky
B.
Christianson
M.
1984
, “Ultrasonic Characteristics of Frozen Liver
,” Cryobiology
, Vol. 21
, pp. 331
–335
.104.
Onik, G., and Rubinsky, B., 1988, “Cryosurgery: New Developments in Understanding and Technique,” Low Temperature Biotechnology: Emerging Applications and Engineering Contributions, J. J. McGrath and K. R. Diller, eds., ASME, New York, pp. 57–80.
105.
Oster
G. F.
Perelson
A. S.
Katchalsky
A.
1973
, “Network Thermodynamic Modelling of Biophysical Systems
,” Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics
, Vol. 6
, pp. 1
–134
.106.
Otten
D. M.
Rubinsky
B.
Cheong
W.-F.
Benaron
D. A.
1998
, “Ice Front Propagation Monitoring in Tissue by the Use of Visible-Light Spectroscopy
,” Applied Optics
, Vol. 37
, pp. 6006
–6010
.107.
Patel
P. A.
Valvano
J. W.
Pearce
J. A.
Prahl
S. A.
Denham
C. R.
1987
, “A Self-Heated Thermistor Technique to Measure Effective Thermal Properties from the Tissue Surface
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 109
, pp. 330
–335
.108.
Patel
P.
Fuchs
G. J.
Guitierrez-Aceves
J.
Ryan
T. P.
1997
, “Prostate Heating Patterns Comparing Electrosurgical Transurethral Resection and Vaporization: A Prospective Randomized Study
,” Journal of Urology
, Vol. 157
, pp. 169
–172
.109.
Pazhayannur
P. V.
Bischof
J. C.
1997
, “Measurement and Simulation of Water Transport During Freezing in Mammalian Liver Tissue
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 119
, pp. 269
–277
.110.
Pearce, J. A., 1986, Electrosurgery, Chapman and Hall, London.
111.
Pearce
J.
Thomsen
S.
Vijverberg
H.
McMurray
T.
1993
, “Kinetics for Birefringence Changes in Thermally Coagulated Rat Skin Collagen
,” Lasers in Otolaryngology, Dermatology, and Tissue Welding
, Vol. 1876
, pp. 180
–186
.1.
Pennes
H. H.
1948
, “Analysis of Tissue and Arterial Blood Temperatures in the Resting Forearm
,” Journal of Applied Physiology
, Vol. 1
, pp. 93
–122
2.
(republished for the 50th anniversary issue of
JAP
, Vol. 85
, pp. 5
–34
).1.
Perdrizet
G. A.
1995
, “Heat Shock and Tissue Protection
,” New Horizons
, Vol. 3
, pp. 312
–320
.2.
Pitt, R. E., 1992, “Thermodynamics and Intracellular Ice Formation,” Advances in Low-Temperature Biology, Vol. 1, P. L. Steponkus, ed., JAI Press, London, pp. 63–100.
3.
Platt, R. C., 1998, “Argon Plasma Electrosurgical Coagulation,” 1998, submitted for publication.
4.
Polge
C.
Smith
A. U.
Parkes
A. S.
1949
, “Revival of Spermatozoa After Vitrification and Dehydration at Low Temperatures
,” Nature
, Vol. 164
, p. 666
666
.5.
Quigley
M. R.
Loesch
D. V.
Shih
T.
Marquardt
M.
Lupetin
A.
Maroon
J. C.
1992
, “Intracranial Cryosurgery in a Canine Model: A Pilot Study
,” Surgical Neurology
, Vol. 38
, pp. 101
–105
.6.
Ravikumar
T. S.
Kane
R.
Cady
B.
Jenkins
R.
Clouse
M.
Steele
G.
1991
, “A Five Year Study of Cryosurgery in the Treatment of Liver Tumors
,” Archives Surgery
, Vol. 126
, pp. 1520
–1524
.7.
Ravikumar
T. S.
Buenaventura
S.
Salem
R. R.
D’ Andrea
B.
1994
, “Intraoperative Ultrasonography of Liver: Detection of Occult Liver Tumors and Treatment by Cryosurgery
,” Cancer Detection and Prevention
, Vol. 18
, pp. 131
–138
.8.
Robinson
D. S.
Parel
J. M.
Denham
D. B.
Gonzalez-Cirrre
X.
Manns
F.
Milne
P. J.
Schachner
R. D.
Herron
A. J.
Comander
J.
Hauptmann
G.
1998
, “Interstitial Laser Hyperthermia Model Development for Minimally Invasive Therapy of Breast Carcinoma
,” Journal of American College of Surgeons
, Vol. 186
, pp. 284
–292
.9.
Ross
D. C.
Diller
K. R.
1976
, “An Experimental Investigation of Burn Injury in Living Tissue
,” ASME JOURNAL OF HEAT TRANSFER
, Vol. 98
, pp. 292
–296
.10.
Rubinsky
B.
Cravalho
E. G.
Mikic
B.
1980
, “Thermal Stresses in Frozen Organs
,” Cryobiology
, Vol. 17
, pp. 66
–73
.11.
Rubinsky
B.
Gilbert
J. C.
Onik
G. M.
Roos
H. S.
Wong
S. T. S.
Brennan
K. M.
1993
, “Monitoring Cryosurgery in the Brain and in the Prostate with Proton NMR
,” Cryobiology
, Vol. 30
, pp. 191
–199
.12.
Rubinsky
B.
Pegg
D. E.
1989
, “A Mathematical Model for the Freezing Process in Biological Tissue
,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
, Vol. B234
, pp. 343
–358
.13.
Ryan
T. P.
1991
, “Comparison of Six Microwave Antennas for Hyperthermia Treatment of Cancer: SAR Results for Single Antennas and Arrays
,” International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology and Physics
, Vol. 21
, pp. 403
–413
.14.
Ryan
T. P.
Backus
V. L.
Coughlin
C. T.
1995
, “Large Stationary Microstrip Arrays for Superficial Microwave Hyperthermia at 433 MHz: SAR Analysis and Clinical Data
,” International Journal of Hyperthermia
, Vol. 11
, pp. 187
–209
.15.
Ryan
T. P.
Colacchio
T. A.
Douple
E. B.
Strohbehn
J. W.
Coughlin
C. T.
1992
, “Techniques for Intraoperative Hyperthermia with Ultrasound: The Dartmouth Experience with 19 Patients
,” International Journal of Hyperthermia
, Vol. 8
, pp. 404
–421
.16.
Ryan, T. P., Garza-Leal, J., Thomsen, S., Iglasias-Benavidas, J., Vancaillie, T. G., Vidal, O., and Lawes, K., 1997, “Comparison of Thermal and Multielec-trode Balloons for Endometrial Ablation.” Annual Meeting, American Association of Gynecologic Laparoscopists, Seattle, WA.
17.
Ryan
T. P.
Hoopes
P. J.
Taylor
J. H.
Strohbehn
J. W.
Roberts
D. W.
Douple
E. B.
Coughlin
C. T.
1991
, “Experimental Brain Hyperthermia: Techniques for Heat Delivery and Thermotherapy
,” International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology and Physics
, Vol. 20
, pp. 739
–750
.18.
Ryan, T. P., Platt, R. C., and Humphries, S., 1998, “Finite Element Model for Endometrial Ablation Systems,” Proceedings of Surgical Applications of Energy, T. P. Ryan, ed., Vol. 3249, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA.
19.
Ryan, T. P., Platt, R. C., Dadd, J. S., and Humphries, S., 1997, “Tissue Electrical Properties as a Function of Thermal Dose for Use in a Finite Element Model,” Advances In Heat And Mass Transfer In Biotechnology, HTD-Vol. 355/BED-Vol. 37, ASME, New York, pp. 167–171.
20.
Saparetto
S. A.
Dewey
W. C.
1984
, “Thermal Dose Determination in Cancer Therapy
,” International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology and Physics
, Vol. 10
, pp. 787
–800
.21.
Schwan
H. P.
Foster
K. R.
1980
, “RF-Field Interactions with Biological Systems: Electrical Properties and Biophysical Mechanisms
,” Proceedings of the IEEE
, Vol. 68
, pp. 104
–113
.22.
Scott
E. P.
Robinson
P. S.
Diller
T. E.
1998
, “Development of Methodologies for the Estimation of Blood Perfusion Using a Minimally Invasive Thermal Probe
,” Measurement Science and Technology
, Vol. 9
, pp. 888
–897
.23.
Shitzer, A., and Eberhart, R. C., eds., 1985, Heat Transfer in Medicine and Biology: Analysis and Applications, Vols. 1 and 2, Plenum Press, New York.
24.
Simon
C.
Van Baren
P.
Ebbini
E. S.
1998
, “Two-Dimensional Temperature Estimation using Diagnostic Ultrasound
,” IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
, Vol. 45
, pp. 1088
–1099
.25.
Silverman
R. H.
Vogelsang
B.
Rondeau
M. J.
Coleman
D. J.
1991
, “Therapeutic Ultrasound for the Treatment of Glaucoma
,” American Journal of Ophthalmology
, Vol. 111
, pp. 327
–337
.26.
Smith
D. L.
Walinsky
P.
Martinez-Hernandez
A.
Rosen
A.
Syterzer
F.
Kosman
Z.
1992
, “Microwave Thermal Balloon Angioplasty in the Normal Rabbit
,” American Heart Journal
, Vol. 123
, pp. 1516
–1521
.27.
Sporl
E.
Genth
U.
Schmalfuss
K.
Seiler
T.
1996
, “Thermomechanical Behavior of the Cornea
,” Journal of Ophthalmology
, Vol. 5
, pp. 322
–327
.28.
Stauffer, P. R., 1998, “Implantable Microwave Antennas for Thermal Therapy,” Proceedings of Surgical Applications of Energy, T. P. Ryan, ed., Vol. 3249, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA.
29.
Stawarz
B.
Szmigielski
S.
Ogrodnik
J.
Astrahan
M.
Petrovich
Z.
A Comparison of Transurethral and Transrectal Microwave Hyperthermia in Poor Surgical Risk Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Patients
,” Journal of Urology
, Vol. 146
, pp. 353
–357
.30.
Steponkus
P. L.
1984
, “The Role of the Plasma Membrane in Freezing Injury and Cold Acclimation
,” Annual Review of Plant Physiology
, Vol. 35
, pp. 543
–584
.31.
Stoll
A. M.
1960
, “A Computer Solution for Determination of Thermal Tissue Damage Integrals from Experimental Data
,” Institute of Radio Engineers Transactions on Medical Electronics
, Vol. 7
, pp. 355
–358
.32.
Stoll
A. M.
Chianta
M. A.
1968
, “Burn Production and Prevention in Convective and Radiant Heat Transfer
,” Aerospace Medicine
, Vol. 39
, pp. 1232
–1238
.33.
Stoll
A. M.
Green
L. C.
1959
, “Relationship Between Pain and Tissue Damage due to Thermal Radiation
,” Journal of Applied Physiology
, Vol. 14
, pp. 373
–382
.34.
Strumia
M. M.
Clawell
L. S.
Strumia
P. V.
1960
, “The Preservation of Blood for Transfusion
,” Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine
, Vol. 56
, pp. 576
–593
.35.
Svaasand
L. O.
Gomer
C. J.
Profio
A. E.
1989
, “Laser-Induced Hyperthermia of Ocular Tumors
,” Applied Physics
, Vol. 28
, pp. 2280
–2287
.36.
Swift
P. S.
Stauffer
P. R.
Fries
P. D.
Kaleta-Michaels
S.
Murray
T.
Sneed
P. K.
Phillips
T. L.
Char
D. H.
1990
, “Microwave Hyperthermia for Choroidal Melanoma in Rabbits
,” Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science
, Vol. 31
, pp. 1754
–1760
.37.
Takata
A. N.
1974
, “Development of Criterion for Skin Burns
,” Aerospace Medicine
, Vol. 45
, pp. 634
–637
.38.
Toner, M., 1993, “Nucleation of Ice Crystals Inside Biological Cells,” Advances in Low-Temperature Biology, Vol. 2, P. L. Steponkus, ed., JAI Press, London, pp. 1–52.
39.
Trembly
B. S.
1985
, “The Effects of Driving Frequency and Antenna Length on Power Deposition Within a Microwave Antenna Array Used for Hyperthermia
,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
, Vol. 32
, pp. 152
–157
.40.
Trembly
B. S.
Douple
E. B.
Hoopes
P. J.
1991
, “The Effect of Air Cooling on the Radial Temperature Distribution of a Single Microwave Hyperthermia Antenna In-Vivo
,” International Journal of Hyperthermia
, Vol. 7
, pp. 343
–354
.41.
Trembly
B. S.
Douple
E. B.
Ryan
T. P.
Hoopes
P. J.
1995
, “Effect of Phase Modulation on the Temperature Distribution of a Microwave Hyperthermia Antenna Array In Vivo
,” International Journal of Hyperthermia
, Vol. 10
, pp. 691
–705
.42.
Trembly
B. S.
Keates
R. H.
1991
, “Combined Microwave Heating and Surface Cooling of the Cornea
,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
, Vol. 38
, pp. 85
–91
.43.
Trembly, B. S., Manganiello, P., and Hoopes, J., 1998, “Microwave Occlusion of the Rabbit Uterine Horn,” Proceedings of Surgical Applications of Energy, T. P. Ryan, ed., Vol. 3249, SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA.
44.
Trembly, B. S., Ryan, T. P., and Strohbehn, J. W., 1991, “Physics of Microwave Hyperthermia,” Hyperthermia and Oncology, Urano and Douple eds., VSP, Vol. 3, pp. 11–98.
45.
Valvano
J. W.
1992
, “Temperature Measurements
,” Advances in Heat Transfer
, Vol. 22
, pp. 359
–436
.46.
Valvano
J. W.
Allen
J. T.
Bowman
H. F.
1984
, “The Simultaneous Measurement of Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity and Perfusion in Small Volumes of Tissue
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 106
, pp. 192
–197
.47.
Valvano
J. W.
Cochran
J. R.
Diller
K. R.
1985
, “Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity of Biomaterials Measured with Self-heated Thermistors
,” International Journal of Thermophysics
, Vol. 6
, pp. 301
–311
.48.
Walcerz
D. B.
Diller
K. R.
1991
, “Quantitative Light Microscopy of Combined Perfusion and Freezing Processes
,” Journal of Microscopy
, Vol. 161
, pp. 297
–311
.49.
Walsh, J. R., Diller, K. R. and Brand, J. J., 1997, “Osmomechanical Behavior of Plant Cells Across Regions of Elastic and Osmotic Stress,” Advances in Heat and Mass Transfer in Biotechnology, HTD-355/BED 37, ASME, New York, pp. 15–23.
50.
Walsh, J. R., Diller, K. R., and Brand, J. J., 1998, “Measurement and Simulation of Water Transport in Algal Cells,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, submitted for publication.
51.
Walsh, J. T., and Bowman, H. F., 1984, “A Noninvasive Technique for Quantifying Tissue Perfusion,” Advances in Bioengineering, R. L. Spilker, ed., ASME, New York, pp. 5–6.
52.
Weaver
J. A.
Stoll
A. M.
1967
, “Mathematical Model of Skin Exposed to Thermal Radiation
,” Aerospace Medicine
, Vol. 40
, pp. 24
–30
.53.
Weill
A.
Shitzer
A.
Bar-Joseph
P.
1993
, “Finite Element Analysis of the Temperature Field Around Two Adjacent Cryo-Probes
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 115
, pp. 374
–379
.54.
Weinbaum
S.
Jiji
L. M.
1987
, discussion of papers by Wissler and Baish et al. concerning “The Weinbaum-Jiji Bioheat Equation
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 109
, pp. 234
–237
.55.
Weinbaum
S.
Jiji
L. M.
Lemons
D. E.
1984
, “Theory and Experiment for the Effect of Vascular Microstructure on Surface Tissue Heat Transfer. Part I. Anatomical Foundation and Model Conceptualization
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 106
, pp. 321
–330
.56.
Whittingham
D. G.
Leibo
S. P.
Mazur
P.
1972
, “Survival of Mouse Embryos Frozen to -196°C and -296°C
,” Science
, Vol. 178
, pp. 411
–414
.57.
Wissler
E. H.
1961
, “Steady State Temperature Distribution in Man
,” Journal of Applied Physiology
, Vol. 16
, pp. 734
–740
.58.
Wissler, E. H., 1985, “Mathematical Simulation of Human Thermal Behavior Using Whole-Body Models,” Heat Transfer in Medicine and Biology, Vol. 1, A. Shitzer and R. C. Eberhart, eds., Plenum Press, New York, pp. 325–373.
59.
Wissler
E. H.
1987
a, “Comments on the New Bioheat Equation Proposed by Weinbaum and Jiji
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 109
, pp. 226
–233
.60.
Wissler
E. H.
1987
b, “Comments on Weinbaum and Jiji’s Discussion of Their Proposed Bioheat Equation
,” ASME Journal of Biomechanical Engineering
, Vol. 109
, pp. 355
–356
.61.
Wissler
E. H.
1998
, “Pennes’ 1948 Paper Revisited
,” Journal of Applied Physiology
, Vol. 85
, pp. 35
–41
.62.
Yeh
M. M.
Trembly
B. S.
Douple
E. B.
Ryan
T. P.
Hoopes
P. J.
Jonsson
E.
Heaney
J. A.
1994
, “Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Air Cooling for Intracavitary Microwave Hyperthermia Applicators
,” IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering
, Vol. 41
, pp. 874
–882
.63.
Zweifach, B. W., 1961 Functional Behavior of the Microcirculation, Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield, IL.
This content is only available via PDF.
Copyright © 1998
by The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
You do not currently have access to this content.